Writing fluency in a second language

Writing is a cognitively demanding activity that requires the coordination of various linguistic and cognitive processes. The management of these competing tasks represents a complex endeavor that is heavily reliant on linguistic and attentional resources. While it is established that fluent writing skills are essential to producing high-quality texts, constituting a core aspect of writing competence in both a well-known first language (L1) and a later-learned second language (L2), there remains a research gap regarding the influence of language- and attention-related abilities on L2 text composition. Three empirical studies were conducted to examine the influence of linguistic and attentional resources, specifically language proficiency and executive functions, on writing fluency in an L2 across different task settings. The research questions were addressed through a comprehensive, process-based analysis of writing behavior using keystroke logging. The log files were subject to an analysis of various fluency-related process characteristics. These included the writers’ produced inter-key intervals, their pause behavior, their burst productions, their revision behavior, and their productivity. The studies examined writing fluency from multiple perspectives: by evaluating the influence of language proficiency on various complementary fluency measures (Study 1), investigating how global patterns in typing behavior change as a function of language proficiency (Study 2), and aggregating a set of fluency measures into two distinct performance dimensions, a productivity and revision-related fluency component, to explore how the interplay between language proficiency and executive functions influence L2 writing (Study 3). The first study is concerned with the examination of differences in writing fluency between L1 and L2 writing and the influence of language proficiency on L2 writing dynamics in descriptive writing and copywriting. The results indicate that writing in an L2 is generally more effortful than in an L1, with language proficiency as a significant predictor of L2 writing fluency in both descriptive writing and copywriting. In particular, inter-key intervals and production rates revealed the additional cognitive burden writers must cope with during L2 text production. In contrast, revision behavior appeared to be contingent on language-overarching writing strategies. The second study introduces Recurrence Quantification Analysis, a statistical method for analyzing recurring patterns in time-series data, as a means of assessing writing dynamics. This holistic approach to fluency analysis demonstrated that typing patterns are more structured in an L1 than in an L2, and language proficiency influences the overall regularity of writing behavior throughout the process. The results indicate that language and motor skills functionally constrain typing dynamics, making typing more efficient for proficient writers. Furthermore, these findings suggest that the regularity of typing patterns reflects the heightened cognitive effort associated with L2 production and limited language skills. The third study extended the research to the examination of attentional resources in L2 writing processes, focusing on how language proficiency influences the relationship between executive function skills and L2 writing. The findings revealed a complex relationship between executive functions and writing performance that depends on language proficiency and varies with the task demands. The results show that language proficiency moderates the effect of attentional resources on the dynamics of writing processes, indirectly influencing the quality of the final text through writing dynamics. Furthermore, the study confirms that language proficiency is a principal predictor of overall text quality, with fluent writing processes generally leading to higher-quality outputs. The findings suggest that writers with different language proficiency levels face distinct challenges in different genres, which is reflected in the intricate interplay between language proficiency and executive function skills influencing writing dynamics. The findings presented in this dissertation emphasize the considerable cognitive effort involved in L2 writing, exemplifying how linguistic and attentional resources dynamically influence the relationship between task demands and L2 writing behavior. Using a process- based research approach with a multifaceted framework to examine the writing process and its fluency, these studies may inform the development of intervention studies for educational settings to support learners at various proficiency levels in enhancing L2 writing fluency.